UN OWG Proposed Target 1.4

RATING: GOOD While the costs are not trivial, there are large, personal benefits through increasing economic opportunity for marginalized groups such as women particularly in rural settings (in urban settings the limited evidence suggests otherwise).

For basic services, the rating depends on the nature of the services. Modern energy services are PHENOMENAL, water services are FAIR, housing services are FAIR and transport services are FAIR.

For inheritance, the benefit-cost ratio is difficult to calculate, since inheritance of goods and property is a zero-sum event. Enforcing inheritance rights for one individual, naturally diminishes the inheritance rights of another party. Distribution of inheritance is an important consideration, but not one that is easily subjectable to cost-benefit analysis. UNCERTAIN rating. Similar argument and rating is applicable to (finite) natural resources.

Enforcement of property rights is an important enabler of economic growth – with again larger benefits for women. For example, there is evidence that if women were able to better enforce property rights they would have more incentives to increase the value and productivity of land they manage (if a crop or plot of land becomes valuable, there is the risk of appropriation by men in the household). GOOD rating.

With respect to new technology, the benefit-cost ratio depends on the technology involved. One good example of how this can be attained is mobile phones, where coverage is large even in remote parts of developing countries. Computers, on the other hand, would be more expensive and difficult to maintain. FAIR rating.

Regarding microfinance, in theory the empowerment potential offered by credit is good for the poor. However, the evidence is still ambiguous. Karlan and Zinman (2011), however, show that in an experiment in the Philippines microfinance may not be as beneficial as it was always thought because entrepreneurs shrank their businesses instead of growing them, their subjective wellbeing was reduced, and women did not benefit from the program more than men, if anything, the treatment effect for men and women was the same. The rating is UNCERTAIN. For broader financial services such as general credit, bank services, etc… the rating is PHENOMENAL.